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In a broad sense, appearances are not limited to what people perceive but can also include memories, beliefs, and thoughts. For example, if a planet or zumospin casino a virus is real then it exists on its own and behaves according to its nature, even if people are unaware or hold false beliefs about it. A related topic concerns the possibility and limits of knowledge as a successful cognitive contact with reality. Debates between realists and anti-realists span multiple domains, addressing the objective existence of universals, abstract objects, values, and unobservable entities posited by scientific theories.
It denies the existence of knowledge in any form or domain, arguing that knowledge is impossible. Some forms target specific domains of knowledge, such as religious skepticism, which denies that beliefs about God or other religious doctrines amount to knowledge. These limitations indicate a gap whereby reality is not fully captured and exceeds knowledge. More general constraints arise from limits of human cognitive faculties rather than situation-specific circumstances, such as facts too complex for anyone to conceive. Testimony is a transmission of knowledge from one person to another through communication.k Memory is the capacity to store information from other sources and make it available to cognitive processes when needed.
- In the social sciences, critical realism holds that observable events in the social world only partially disclose reality.
- Realism and anti-realism are families of views concerning the mind-independence of reality.
- According to this view, even a complete understanding of physics would not render sciences dedicated to higher levels, such as psychology, obsolete.
- It opposes the idea that world and mind are essentially correlated, emphasizing the mind-independent nature of reality beyond the way humans perceive and think about it.
- A central topic in ontology is the categories of being—fundamental classes that map out a comprehensive inventory of reality.
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In the social sciences, critical realism holds that observable events in the social world only partially disclose reality. Local realism is a view that combines the principle of locality with the notion that there are definite physical properties, whether or not they are being observed by someone. Error theory asserts that all value statements are false because there are no values.i Another form of anti-realism maintains that value statements are neither true nor false but meaningless.
A semantic approach to the debate between realism and anti-realism, proposed by Michael Dummett, argues that the underlying disagreement concerns the meaning of statements rather than the existence of entities. It opposes the idea that world and mind are essentially correlated, emphasizing the mind-independent nature of reality beyond the way humans perceive and think about it. On this view, unobservable entities may be invoked in theory construction to aid prediction but should not be taken to exist. Anti-realism questions the prospect of achieving a true description of a mind-independent world. Scientific realism is the view that the best scientific theories provide an accurate description of a mind-independent world.
Anthropology examines diverse ways of life, including the question of how distinct cultures interpret reality. The simulation hypothesis is the view that the whole world and everything within it is a simulated reality, including humans. Computer scientists discuss how systems of knowledge representation can organize information about reality and make it accessible to computational processes. Reality testing is another suggested psychological function in which individuals distinguish intrapsychic from external events to assess how their experience aligns with reality. It overlaps with the cognitive sciences, which investigate how cognitive processes transform information about the world, and with neuroscience, which studies the brain activities underlying such processes.
- Reason is the ability to draw logical inferences and arrive at truths independent of immediate sensory input.
- In this sense, realism and anti-realism encompass many domain-specific positions across diverse fields.
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- According to conventionalism, the truth of mathematical statements rests on linguistic conventions or definitions, rather than on their relation to language-independent reality.
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Skepticism about metaphysics holds that it is not possible to know the fundamental nature of reality, such as claims about categories of being or the existence of universals. For example, emotivism holds that value statements express emotional attitudes of subjective approval or disapproval rather than objective facts. Realists hold that values are objective features of reality, meaning that there are mind-independent facts about whether something is good or bad, irrespective of subjective beliefs or personal preferences. Phenomenalism, a related view, reduces physical objects to collections of actual or possible sensory experiences. In the broadest sense, realism is the view that the external world and its constituents exist as they do regardless of how people perceive or think about them.
Formalism, another form of anti-realism, understands mathematics as a practice of symbol manipulation, suggesting that mathematical truth is grounded in whether the manipulation rules permit the construction of a proof. According to conventionalism, the truth of mathematical statements rests on linguistic conventions or definitions, rather than on their relation to language-independent reality. Anti-realists hold that there are no abstract objects and offer alternative explanations.
A central topic in ontology is the categories of being—fundamental classes that map out a comprehensive inventory of reality. Becoming, by contrast, covers change, like when an entity shifts from one state of being to another. Other suggested criteria identify reality with what is observable, measurable,a coherent,b useful, objective, intersubjective, or fundamental. This view emphasizes that reality is encountered, rather than invented, and can resist or frustrate beliefs and desires, unlike malleable imaginary creations.
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